The Concept of Sadness (huzn) from the Perspective of Said Nursi
By Mahshid Turner*
The secular, medical-model approach to the treatment of sadness and depression has proved largely to be an unsuccessful one, with the WHO estimating that by 2020, depression will become the second leading cause of worldwide disability. Horwitz and Wakefield state that our era is “viewed as an age of sadness that is abnormal”, and medication and therapy are approved as a useful way to treat this condition, for since it is seen as a medical condition, the individual is no longer blamed. They state that reaction to failed hopes and aspirations is a “natural response to social circumstances” and medication and therapy are not appropriate if there is no internal malfunction. They conclude that there must be a reason for the intense sadness that human beings sometimes feel, and that instead of masking this with medication, questions should be asked about the positive role of sadness, for it may well have reparative functions that are still not understood. (Horwitz and Wakefield, The Loss of Sadness, 2007).
Thomas Szasz (American Psychologist V15 p.113-118 – The Myth of Mental illness 1960) questions the existence of mental illness as it is understood today. He states that the medical model makes no distinction between the diseases of the brain and those of the mind. In other words, for him there is no differentiation made between organic dysfunction and ‘problems in living’. He gives the example of brain disease as being no different from skin or bone disease since they are both a ‘neurological defect’ and not a ‘problem of living’. He adds that the concept of illness, whether mental or physical, is based on ‘deviation from a clearly defined norm’ and the ‘norm’ for measuring deviation from mental health is a psycho-social and ethical one. Szasz points to the contradiction inherent in the fact that although mental illness is recognised as a psycho-social and ethical problem, its remedy is sought by way of medical measures. He also points out that those who are hired to correct the problem, such as psychiatrists, are hired in order to correct the person’s ‘deviation’ so that he or she fits in the norms of the organisation or society to which they belong. Here it is implied that there is no absolute criterion by which mental health or ‘normality’ can be defined.
One of the reasons that Said Nursi is considered by his followers to be a mujaddid is the impact and significance of his magnum opus, the Risale-i Nur, which through the criterion of the Quran offers a direct and accessible way to belief and the answer to the questions of modern man with regard to a whole host of issues, including that of sadness. In the spirit of revivalism (tajdid), Nursi devoted much of his work to the renewal of faith. One of the things which he addresses in this discourse on renewal of faith is the damage done by hopelessness. Now hopelessness has always existed, but for Nursi it is a particular characteristic of post-enlightenment society in which egoism and nihilism have taken root.
In his Damascus Sermon, delivered in 1911, he describes ‘six dire sicknesses in the social and political life of man’, and outlines what he believes is their cure. These sicknesses, he said, consist of the human states of despair and hopelessness; the death of truthfulness; the love of enmity; the lack of Islamic unity; despotism; and egocentricity. Nursi’s suggested cure for these sicknesses was that people should not give up hope; rather, they should ensure that truthfulness, mutual love, trustworthiness, consultation, solidarity and freedom are maintained by following Islamic principles, for true civilization, he claimed, could be found only within Islam itself.
Also in Lemeat, Nursi makes a comparison between European literature and the Qur’an. He attributes the destruction of Western civilization to its separation from true Christianity, a tragedy which, he says, has led to inequality, dissipation and immorality, and as a result the distress and corruption of individuals and society. Nursi believes that the only real source of evil is unbelief, which stems from a refusal to attribute everything to the Divine. He states that it is this wilful disconnection of creation from its Divine source that causes pain and sadness, for without such a connection, the whole cosmos appears worthless and futile.
In this paper I aim to uncover a Nursian approach to the issue of sadness. Said Nursi uses the word huzn for sadness, but a literal translation of the word can only give us a partial view of the original meaning and may also be skewed owing to cultural variations in meaning. Toshihiko Izutsu points to the importance of context and the gathering together of occurrences of a word and its derivatives in the Quran in order to check them against each other so that we may get a more accurate and clear picture of its meanings. I will therefore be using aspects of Izutsu’s methodology to look at the context in which the word ‘sadness’ (huzn) is used and to compare the same word and its derivatives in some of Nursi’s work in order to understand what sadness means, to look at its possible causes and how, if at all, it can be cured. Before looking at some of the passages in the Quran where the word (huzn) and its derivatives are used, I will give more detail about the Izutsian methodology.
Izutsu does not claim that his methodology is original and admits that it is based on a variation of semantics called sprachliche Weltanschauungslehre developed by Professor Leo Weisgerber. The major arguments of this theory are similar to the theory of ‘ethnolinguistics’ originated by Edward Sapir, which concerns the study of the interrelations between cultural and linguistic patterns. Izutsu’s aim in the elaboration of this methodology is to move away from literal translation as much as possible. He therefore recommends a more ‘scientific’ or ‘inductive’ approach as words can easily lose their true meaning due to cultural or personal sentiments. An analytic study of terms, that is, by describing the semantic category of a word in terms of the conditions and context it is used, is less likely to be prejudiced and is likely to give a more accurate meaning.
Returning to Nursi, the key to the cure for sadness is, according to him, the Quran itself. Therefore it is to the Quran that we turn first to in order to explore a few of the forty-two verses in which the word huzn (sadness) and its derivatives are mentioned.
There are actually a number of words in the Quran which have been translated into English as ‘sadness’. The generic verb for describing general misery and suffering is the shaqiya. The dictionary translation is: to be miserable; be wretched in distress; to be unhappy. The Quranic meaning for this word and its various derivatives refers to those who turn away from God and reject His guidance. For example, in verse 11:105 we read: “The day it arrives, no soul shall speak, except by his leave: Of those (gathered) some will be wretched (shaqī) and some will be blessed.” And in verse 20:2 : “We have not sent down the Quran to thee to be (an occasion) for thy distress (tashqi). But as an admonition from those who worshiped besides Allah”.
Although other terms form a constituent element of shaqiya, they are more specific in relation to the context in which they are applied. These include ḍanaka , from which we get the idea of ‘narrowness’ or ‘straitened and wretched’; ḍaqa, meaning ‘to become narrow or tight’, ‘to become distressed’ and its derivative ḍayq meaning ‘trouble and grief’; ‘usr meaning ‘hardship or distress’; hasra meaning ‘anguish, regret and sorrow relating more to grief and regret as a result of missed opportunity’; khawf, meaning ‘fear and apprehension’ and mainly related to anxiety in relation to the unknown; and balā, which connotes test, trial and a kind of temporary suffering imposed on believers as a test of faith. Ḥuzn, which is generally translated as ‘grief, sorrow, sadness and roughness of soul’ may be a consequence of worry and anxiety (hamm), due to the fear of impending harm and the actual experience of this harm which can result in overwhelming difficulties and distress (gham) (Dictionary of the Holy Quran, Abdul Mannan Omar, Noor Foundation 2005). To show how all of these words are used in the Quran is clearly beyond the scope of this paper and thus we will concentrate only on the word huzn.
In Baqara 38 we see clearly that if Divine guidance (hudā) is followed, there will be neither fear (khawf) nor grief (huzn) for the one guided:
“We said: Go forth from this (state) all; so surely there will come to you a guidance ( hudā) from Me, then whoever follows my guidance, no fear (khawf) shall come upon them, nor shall they grieve (yahzanūn).”
It is interesting here that instead of the first person plural We, the first person singular Me is used, highlighting the fact guidance is coming directly from God – with emphasis on the personal relationship between the One who guides and the one who is guided – and assuring the reader that where there is no associationism (shirk) there will be no room for fear (khawf) or sadness (huzn).
In Baqara 62 we see that the criteria for a life lived without fear or sadness is clearly delineated:
“Surely those who believe, and those who are Jews, and the Christians and the Sabians, whoever believes (āmina) in God and the last day (al-yawm al-ākhira) and does good (‘amila ṣālih), they shall have their reward (ajr) from their Lord, and there is no fear (khawf) for them, nor shall they grieve (yahzanūn).”
Therefore, Quranically, the only way to be rewarded by God and to avoid fear and sadness is belief in God, belief in the Last Day, and the performance of righteous actions.
In Baqara 112 there is mention again of the reward (ajr) for those who submit to God and do good, and the fact that they will not experience any fear (khawf) and grief (huzn). However, there is more elaboration of what belief in God means, that is, it is not just something which one utters; rather, it involves the submission of the whole self:
“Yes! Whoever submits himself entirely (aslama wajhahu) to Allah and he is the doer of good (muhsin) to others, he has his reward (ajr) from his Lord, and there is no fear (khawf) for him nor shall he grieve (yahzanūn).”
According to Ṭabāṭabā’ī in his commentary al-Mīzān, this submission of the whole self means turning to God not merely from the point of view of location (makān) but from the direction (jahat) of our whole being and our whole standpoint.
In Baqara 262 there is more explanation of what doing good actually consists of:
“As for those who spend (yanfiqūn) their property (amwāl) in the way of Allah (fī sabīl Allāh), then do not follow up what they have spent with reproach (manna) or injury, they shall have their reward (ajr) from their Lord, and they shall have no fear (khawf) nor shall they grieve (yahzanūn).”
Here the condition of spending of one’s property in the way of God is not to boast about it or remind people; in other words it means not doing good works for one’s own sake or in order to own one’s action. The outcome of giving in total sincerity will be recompensed by God and when all one’s actions are ‘in the way of God’, that is, when there is no associationism (shirk) then one will be at ease. Hence it is clear here that a result of not attributing things to causes and having total reliance and trust in God is the fading away of fear (khawf) and grief (huzn). According to Ṭabāṭabā’ī, actions which are done purely for the sake of God are forms of charitable giving (ṣadaqa) and will be rewarded. The word manna here means to ‘cut off’, implying that if one boasts about one’s actions, then they can no longer be classed as actions carried out for the sake of God.
In Baqara 277 we read that belief includes submission, that is, those who believe and do good (‘amal ṣālih) and submit in accordance with their belief by performing their prayers (ṣalāt) and paying the poor rate (zakāt) will be rewarded by God and they shall have no fear or grief. In al-Mīzān there is emphasis that true security and peace can be obtained only through belief (īmān) and good works (‘amal-i ṣālih):
“Surely they who believe (āminū) and do good deeds and keep up prayer and pay the poor rate, they shall have their reward from their Lord, and they shall have no fear (khawf), nor shall they grieve (yahzanūn).”
It is also states here that the reward shall be directly from their Lord; no other causes are involved. The word rabb, Lord, in Arabic denotes one who cherishes, nourishes and gives love and security.
In An‘ām 48 we have more clarification that believers who follow the way of the Prophet shall not experience any fear (khawf) or grief (huzn).
“We send the Messengers only to give good news and to warn: So those who believe (āmana) and mend (aṣlaha) their lives – upon them shall be no fear (khawf ), nor shall they grieve (yahzanūn).”
In the verse which follows, however, we see a different story:
“As for those who reject (kadhabū) our verses/signs, chastisement (‘adhāb) shall afflict them because they transgressed (yafsaqūna).”
The translation in the above verse for the words ‘who reject our verses’ is kadhaba, literally ‘to fabricate a lie’; rejection of God’s verses or signs (āyāt) will result in chastisement on account of the transgression (fisq) involved. The word fisq is derived from a root which means, among other things, means to ‘become perverted’. The words ‘those who reject our verses/signs’ is also used in A‘rāf 36, with the punishment for rejection being hellfire.
In Tafsīr al-Nūr, the explanation for above verse is that only through belief at the highest level can calmness of heart be obtained, the criteria of which is the recognition of God as the Absolute Owner (mālik) and not attributing any power to causes. And fear (khawf) and sadness (huzn) are explained as psychological states resulting from attachment to worldy things:
Whoever accepts Islam at the invitation of the Prophet and follows the programme of the Quran, his belief and good works will be the cause for the stability of his heart and calmness of mind in life, and he will be safe from any fear and sadness, and he will not suffer from any anxiety. And what is meant is that his sincere belief in his heart in the pillars of Islam and belief in God’s Unity of Action will be such that he recognises God as the Absolute Owner of all things, and he will not attribute to any created being the power to effect anything independently. And because they trust in God, they see Him as the only One who administers the creation and so will never be afraid of any occurrences and will not be sad about disappearance of bounty. But those who reject the Prophet’s message, their sins and transgression (fisq) will become apparent in the Hereafter and will take on the form of painful punishment.
Fear (khawf ) is the fear of loss of bounty or is awareness of a loss that may happen in the future, while is sadness due to lack of bounty or is a loss incurred previously and both are psychological states and is the heart’s attachment to a thing. And since khawf is used with the conjunction ilā it denotes a fear which is a deficiency (i.e. a negative fear) and not fear of God and His punishment, which is necessary for belief. (Tafsīr al-Nūr)
As is explained in the above exegesis, fear is composed of two psychological states, one positive and one negative. The verses above refer to the negative fear resulting from the failure to recognise God’s power and ownership as opposed to the positive or reverential fear of God. In Tawba 40, Yusef Ali translates lā tahzan (lit. ‘do not be sad’) as ‘have no fear’, thus suggesting that sadness and fear may actually be interchangeable:
“If ye help not (your leader), (it is no matter) for Allah did indeed help him, when the unbelievers drove him out: he had no more than one companion. The two were in the cave, and he said to his companion, ‘have no fear (lā tahzan) for Allah is with us’: then Allah sent down His peace (sakīna) upon him, and strengthened him with forces which ye saw not, and humbled to the depths the word of the unbelievers. But the word (kalima) of Allah is exalted to the heights: For Allah is exalted in might” (S9:40).
In the above verse, the sadness (huzn) is used in a positive, ‘light scattering’ sense. Here the sadness comes from the fear that there are only two of them, namely the Prophet and his companion hiding in the cave with the forces of the enemy right behind them. However, by having total trust in God and the not attributing power to the enemy forces, God granted them peace of mind and tranquillity (sakīna).
In many verses in the Quran, for example 6:33 and 10:65 the prophets are reminded not to be sad as the All-knowing and All-Hearing God is well aware of the transgression of the wrong doers, the ẓālimīn. In Yusef 13, Jacob admits his fears to his sons:
“(Jacob) said: ‘Really it saddens me (yahzununi) that ye should take him away: I fear (khawf) lest the wolf should devour him while ye attend not to him.’”
Jacob’s grief was such that he eventually went blind. In Yusuf 84 the first word used for ‘grief’ is asf which according to al-Mīzān is sadness together with anger:
“And he turned away from them, and said: ‘how great is my grief for Joseph!’ (Yā asafā ‘alā Yūsuf)And his eyes became white with sorrow (huzn) and he fell into silent melancholy (kaẓīm).”
The dictionary translation of the word kaẓīm is ‘one who is grieving inwardly and in silence’, ‘repressor of rage’, ‘filled with sorrow that he suppresses’, suggesting that this a positive sadness (huzn) in which the opportunity is given to Jacob to overcome his weakness. In Yusuf 86, Jacob is well aware that he is being tested by God and states clearly that he is not complaining about his sadness to anyone except God, thus indicating that he is not attributing the disappearance of Yusuf to anyone or anything else except God, and emphasising that there is no associationism (shirk) involved. His complaint is directly to God, hence the admission of his impotence and his plea for God’s Mercy:
“He said: ‘I only complain of my distraction and anguish (huzn) to Allah, and I know from Allah that which ye know not’.”
According to al-Mīzān, the word distraction (baththa) has the dictionary meaning of distress, grief, anguish and sorrow; it is a kind of sadness that its owner is unable to keep hidden. In Yusuf 87 it is obvious that although Jacob grieves, he has not despaired of God’s Mercy:
“‘O my sons! Go ye and enquire about Joseph and his brother, and never despair (lā ta’yasū) of God’s soothing Mercy. Indeed, no-one despairs of God’s mercy except those who have no faith (qawm al-kāfirūn)’.”
According to Al-Balkhi (d.322/934), huzn (sadness) is one of the spiritual diseases caused by loss of loved ones, personal belongings or the failure to obtain what one is looking for or wishes to possess. He points to two types of huzn. For the first kind there is a genuine reason, such as a serious loss which may be linked to a yearning for loved ones or material loss. For this kind of sadness there is the psychological treatment of changing the inner thoughts and cognitions. The second type of sadness which is linked to physical causes, needs to be treated medically.
We turn now to Said Nursi, who also states that huzn is of two kinds:
It is either a dark sorrow (huzn) arising from the lack of friends (fughdān-i ahbāb), that is having no friends or owner (ṣāhib), which is the sorrow (huzn) produced by the literature of civilization (adabīyāt-i madaniyyat), which is stained by misguidance (ḍalāla), enamoured of nature (ṭabī’at-parast), tainted by heedlessness (ghafla), or it is the second sorrow (huzn). This arises from the separation of friends, that is, the friends exist, but their absence causes a yearning sorrow (mushtākane bir huzun). This is the guidance-giving (hidāya), light-scattering sorrow (nūr fishān huzn) which the Quran produces.
He also gives the antithesis of sadness (huzn) as joy (neshāt) which also has a positive and negative aspect:
Joy too is of two sorts: One stimulates the desires of the soul (tashwiq nafsi hawwas). This is the mark of civilization’s literature in the fields of theatre, cinema, and the novel. While the other joy (nes’e) silences the soul (nefs), and is subtle and mannerly, innocently urging the spirit (ruh), heart (ghalb), mind (aghl) and subtle faculties to attain to sublime matters, to their original home (vatan asli) and eternal abode (makan abadi), and their companions of the hereafter (ashab okhravi); it is the joy (nes’e) the Quran of Miraculous Exposition produces. It fills man with eagerness for paradise and eternal happiness (saadat abadi) and the vision of God’s beauty. (25th word – First light 3rd Ray p.433)
The first sorrow Nursi describes is of the negative kind, with the sense of isolation and detachment, due to not only lack of friends, but also to the failure to recognise that one has an Owner. Nursi to a great extent blames this kind of alienation on ‘civilisation’ (madaniat). By civilisation he means the negative aspects of society which actively encourages misguidance and heedlessness. The second kind of sorrow he describes is a positive one since although the separation of friends causes sadness, it has the potential to bring guidance, which is why Nursi calls it a ‘light-giving sorrow’ produced by the Quran.
Nursi talks about this second kind of sadness that is, the light-giving sorrow, in many parts of the Risale. For example in The Letters he describes his loneliness while in exile, mainly due to old age and the yearning he felt for the people he loved. He states that he felt alone and sad (hazin) owing to the fact many of his friends and relatives had departed to the intermediate realm or barzakh. This sense of separation made him feel very lonely and sad (hazin bir gurbetti hissetim). However, while in this state he was able to turn to God and the light of belief (nur-i iman) made him realise that God was enough for him. He therefore, as he puts it, looked for the misfortune’s sender which turned out to be not a misfortune at all for it was a means for seeking the light of belief, which in fact was a beautiful gift and the means for obtaining true pleasure (6th letter p.42).
In The Flashes (26th Flash, p.307-308) in his treatise for the elderly, Nursi talks about his own fears of approaching old age:
Suddenly I was overwhelmed by a plaintive, sorrowful (hazin) and in one respect dark state of mind. I saw that I had become old….. Suddenly Divine Mercy unfolded ….it transformed that plaintive sadness (hazin) and separation (firaq) into a powerful hope (Reja) and shining light of solace. …… His Mercy is our greatest hope which comes through forming a relation with the Most Merciful One through belief (Iman).
In the Signs of Miraculousness (p.77) Nursi talks about unbelief being the reason why ‘hearts are sealed’ (khatama Allahu ‘ala qulubihim) and the ‘bounty of hearing’ is taken away hence the inability ‘to hear the sounds of the orchestra of the universe’. This is the first, the negative kind of sadness (huzun) which he states is not due to lack of friends but due to becoming “deaf to these delightful sounds” and hearing “nothing from the universe except cries of mourning and the lamentations of death…….. this arouses in the heart the pathetic sorrow (huzunleri) of the orphan (yetim); that is, the lack of friends, and the desolation of alienation; that is, being without owner or guardian”.
In The Flashes, Fourth Hope (p.311) Nursi reminds believers that the Quran is “a cure for every ill, a light (ziya) for every darkness (zulmat) and a hope (Reja) for all despair (Yas). In the 5th Hope (p.311) he talks about his own experience which is another example of the second kind of sorrow which resulted in a positive outcome:
Feeling a truly piteous sorrow (hazin) arising from parting (firaq), I wept… I sought solace, a light, a door leading to hope. Suddenly belief (iman) in the hereafter came to my assistance (Reja).
Although there are many other examples in the Risale, the above examples suffice to demonstrate how the word huzn and its derivatives are used in order to demonstrate its positive as well as negative aspect. Nursi makes it clear that sociologists and psychiatrists will not be able to find the remedy for sadness, for the only hope for the cure of sadness and the sense of alienation is the light of belief (iman) found through the guidance of the Quran.
Having looked at the term ‘huzn’ the words happiness (surur), zulmat (darkness) as opposed to ziya (light), yas (despair) as opposed to hope (Reja), Kufr (unbelief) as opposed to belief (iman) and associationism (shirk) as opposed to belief in Divine Unity and Divine Determining (ghadar) form part of the semantic nexus. The state of the unknown, darkness and fear (zulmat and khawf) is expressed for example in the Rays (p.21 the second Ray, First Station):
One time when observing the season of spring, I saw that the successive caravans of beings, and especially living creatures and the small young ones at that, which followed on one after the other and in a flowing torrent displaying hundreds of thousands of samples of the resurrection of the dead and Great Gathering on the face of the earth, appeared only briefly then disappeared. The tableaux of death and transience amid that constant, awesome activity seemed to me excessively sad (hazin); I felt such pity it made me weep. The more I observed the deaths of those lovely small creatures, the more my heart ached. I cried at the pity of it and within me felt a deep spiritual turmoil. Life which met with such an end seemed to me to be torment (azap) worse than death.
As I started to utter fearful objections (muthiz itiraz) about Divine Determining (moghadarat hayat) and the grievous (elim kayfiat) circumstances of the outer face of life and it events, the light of the Quran, the mystery of belief, the favour of the Most Merciful, and belief in Divine Unity all came to my assistance. They lit up those darknesses, and transformed my laments into joy and my weeping into happiness (surur) and my pity into exclamations of “Blessed by God! What wonders God had willed!” They caused me to declare: “All praise be to God for the light of belief.” For through the mystery of Divine unity I saw that all creatures, and particularly living creatures, produce truly significant results and have general benefits.
Having analysed the word huzn (sadness) through the comparison of the terms that resemble, correspond and contrast with it, occurring in some parts of the Resale as well as the Quran, it is clear that God promises that believers will not suffer sadness or fear. The positive sadness (huzn) that Nursi talks about is a bounty from God as it is an opportunity to return (raja) to state of belief which is the state of one’s true nature where real happiness and freedom can be attained. Both the ancient concept of happiness which goes back to Aristotle and the modern concept are predicated on the idea that happiness in an end in itself, with the difference being that the ancients based happiness on proper moral conduct whereas the modern secular idea of happiness does not link happiness to any moral codes. However, according to the Islamic perspective, true happiness (sa’ada) can be attained in this world only if it is seen in connection with the hereafter.
As is mentioned in some verses in the Quran, even prophets experienced sadness, but this was a kind of sadness that was the outcome of kind heartedness and pity for those who went astray (S5:41 and 3:176). Even Jacob, who suffered so much because of the loss of his son Joseph, turned to his family and said that his sadness was not due to the attribution of his plight to causes (shirk) as his complaint was directly to God, thus showing that he accepted God’s Decree and Determining (qada wa qadar) even though the separation was for him hard to bare.
For Nursi, the conditions of belief are patience (sabr), trust in God (tawaqul) and God fearing, that is having (taqwa). This is God-fearing in the positive sense of not having reliance of on one’s ego in an arrogant way but always remaining in the middle way of hope and fear (khawf and rija). It is a state of constant awareness of guarding oneself against disobedience in accordance to the criteria of the Quran and is the state of peace and happiness of being submitted to the One God. Kufr, on the other hand, which has the basic meaning of ‘to cover’ and connotes showing ingratitude through non-recognition of God’s bounties, is the antonym of belief, and results from istikbar (pride) and the imagination that one is free (istighna), independent and disconnected from everything else in creation. It is this disconnection which results in behaving in a wrongful way to others and one self. And it is this imbalance with the rest of the creation that brings about a sense of alienation, fear and ultimately sadness and despair.
Although belief (iman) and religion (islam) are not identical, they are not mutually exclusive either. The conditions of belief according to the Quran as quoted above are clearly specified as belief in One God, belief in the Last Day, to do good (amila salih), to perform the prayers (salat) and to pay the poor rate (zakat); thus submission (islam) must be together with belief. It is this belief which is the ‘normal’ or ‘balanced’ state for individuals. The root of the word āmina itself conveys the meaning of trust, safety, security and hence freedom from the fear of the unknown. Therefore those who believe will feel secure (amin), their hearts will remain tranquil and they will not experience fear (khawf) or sadness (huzn).
Said Nursi’s status as a mujaddid of the present age rests on, among other things, his ability to clarify in today’s language the solutions to many problems of the present age. One of these problems is the pathological or negative sadness which beleaguers post-Enlightenment man. For Nursi, only total trust in God (tawakull) and the non-attribution of effects to causes can result in freedom from worry, and only through submission of the self to God is there the potential to experience true freedom, joy and inner peace.
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*Mahshid Turner, PhD Candidate, Department of Theology, Durham University, UK